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From the NADD Bulletin Volume XI Number 2
Health Considerations of Bottled Water
Larry Livingston Ph.D., University of Illinois-Springfield
Consuming commercially bottled water has become a popular practice
for millions of Americans, often due to the perception that bottled
water is “safe,” “clean,” and “healthy.”
But is this perception accurate? This article will review recent
findings regarding the safety of bottled water and other plastic
objects, identify groups who appear specifically at-risk for health
concerns, and offer some conclusions, based upon current research.
Bottled water sales amounted to $15 billion in the United States in
the year 2007 (Larsen, 2007). In a survey, 86% of Americans expressed
concern about the quality of tap water, and 74% preferred the taste
of bottled water to tap water (“Water, water,” 2001).
However, some believe that tap water actually poses fewer health
risks than bottled water, due to chemicals that can leak from some
plastics (Arnold & Larsen, 2006; Swartzberg, 2007; “Think
Outside the Bottle,” n.d.).
Potentially Dangerous Plastics
To understand how the container affects the water inside, one should
begin by identifying the type of plastic used in the container. The
bottom of the bottle will usually contain a triangle with the number
1-7 inside. Each of these seven types of plastic has its own
characteristics. Sources (“When Recycling Is Dangerous,”
2007; Whittelsey, 2003) have identified the following plastics as
potentially dangerous to health:
#1 (PETE or PET):
This plastic is used to make clear plastic bottles containing water,
soda, mouthwash, salad dressing, popcorn, cooking oil, peanut butter,
and cough syrup. These bottles may be safe for one-time use, but if
reused or damaged can leach out DEHP, which has been linked to GI
distress and is classified as a “probable human carcinogen”
(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2000). Some believe the use of
PETE #1 is environmentally positive, because it can be recycled.
However, the recycling process requires a great deal of energy, and
releases toxic chemicals into the environment (Whittelsey, 2003).
Perhaps this is not important, considering relatively few #1 bottles
are recycled. In California, where #1 bottles have refund value, only
16% are actually recycled (“Commonly Asked Questions,”
n.d.). In most states, there is no financial incentive to recycle
these bottles, and millions end up in landfills each day (“When
Recycling Is Dangerous,” 2007). In some cases,
“recycling” results in these plastics being shipped
overseas, to be burned as fuel. This process releases toxic
byproducts such as chlorine gas and ash containing heavy metals
(Arnold & Larsen, 2006).
#7 (polycarbonate, such as Lexan or Nalgene):
A transparent plastic used in infant pacifiers, sippy cups, plastic
baby bottles, water cooler bottles, and reusable hiking bottles.
Plastic #7 has been shown to leach Bisphenol A (BPA), “an
artificial estrogen” especially dangerous to infant development
(“When Recycling Is Dangerous,” 2007). BPA has also been
termed an “endocrine disruptor” and linked to breast and
prostate cancer, early onset puberty, and obesity (Whittelsey, 2003).
It is also associated with reproductive disorders including fibroids,
endometriosis, cystic ovaries, and cancer (Geehr, 2007), with
polycystic ovarian syndrome (Takeuchi, Tsutsumi, Idezuki &
Taketani, 2004), and with recurrent miscarriages (Sugiura-Ogasawara,
Ozaki, Shin-ichi, Makino & Suzumori, 2005). In Canada, two
large retailers (Mountain Equipment Cooperative and Lululemon
Athletica) removed Polycarbonate bottles from their shelves, due to
health concerns (Christie, 2007). In the United States, the Centers
for Disease Control (CDC) conducted a study of 2517 individuals age
six years and older; 93% tested positive for BPA in their urine. The
highest concentrations were found in children, followed by teens,
adult women, and adult men (Christie, 2007). Researchers found BPA in
fetal amniotic fluid and in the umbilical cords of newborns (Center
for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction, 2006). BPA
exposure has also been linked to neural effects and aggressive
behavior (Kawai, Takehiro, Nishikata, Aou & Kubo, 2003). When
polycarbonate is burned, it releases toxic chemicals into the
environment. Tests have revealed that #7 bottles should not be
cleaned with harsh detergents, or put in dish washers, because doing
so was found to release very high levels of BPA (Whittelsey, 2003).
San Francisco recently banned the sale of certain plastic toys for
children under three years of age (Roosevelt, 2006). It is difficult
for consumers to be fully protected, as the U.S. does not require
manufacturers to disclose ingredients in most consumer products, and
manufacturers guard their use of ingredients as proprietary
(Roosevelt, 2006). In a recent study, five popular brands of baby
bottles were tested to see if BPA leached into the liquid contained
within. The brands were Avent, Dr. Brown’s, Evenflo, Gerber, and
Playtex; all five brands leaked BPA at levels found to cause harm in
laboratory animals (Gibson, 2007). BPA has also been found to leach
out of the plastic lining in infant formula containers, including
powders, made by Nestle, Ross-Abbot (Similac), MeadJohnson (Enfamil),
Hain-Celestial (Earth’s Best) and PBM, sold under various names
at Walmart, Kroger, and Target (Environmental Working Group, 2007b).
BPA has also been found in canned food, with chicken soup and ravioli
having the highest concentrations (Environmental Working Group, 2007a).
#3 (PVC):
PVC is an opaque plastic commonly used in plumbing. Like PETE #1, PVC
can leak out DEHP. (“When Recycling Is Dangerous,” 2007).
If incinerated, PVC emits synthetic carcinogens (dioxins) into the
atmosphere (Fisk, 2005).
#6 (polystyrene):
Polystyrene is used to make disposable cups, plates, and packing
“peanuts”. These can leak out styrene, suspected of being a
carcinogen (“When Recycling Is Dangerous,” 2007). Pets have
been known to deliberately eat polystyrene packing peanuts, a
practice to be discouraged.
Safer Alternatives
Safer plastic choices include #2 (HDPE, or high density
polyethylene), used in sports bottles, containers for shampoo,
detergent, and milk jugs; #4 (LDPE, or low-density polyethylene),
used for newspaper and grocery bags; and #5 (polypropylene), used for
yogurt containers and deli trays (Whittelsey, 2003). These appear
safe to re-use after proper cleaning. As an alternative to plastic
water bottles, stainless steel and aluminum bottles (such as offered
by Sigg) have been found to be safe, unless lined with plastic. Glass
is the preferred choice of some (Fisk, 2005) and is easily recycled.
High-quality municipal tap water would represent a wise public
investment, rather than diverting vast amounts of money to private
bottling companies (“Water, Water,” 2001). Tap water
is kinder to the environment (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
2000; “Think Outside the Bottle,” n.d.). These sources
point to the crude oil and energy required to manufacture plastic
bottles and the fuel required to transport bottles to stores
(“Think Outside,” n.d.). Once used, 86% of plastic water
bottles in the U.S. become garbage or litter. More energy is required
to “recycle” empty bottles to other countries. Increased
use of tap water would also reduce bottle waste in landfills.
Many U.S. cities including Los Angeles, San Francisco, Salt Lake
City, Chicago, and New York have implemented campaigns to encourage
the use of tap water and to discourage consumption of bottled water
(Larsen, 2007).
It is interesting to note that while use of bottled water from a
nearby source reduces environmental transportation emissions, bottled
water produced and sold in the same state is exempt from U.S.
federal regulatory scrutiny (“Water, Water,” 2001).
Conclusions
While everyone should be concerned about potential health risks from
plastics, infants, young children, pregnant women, and women who may
become pregnant appear to be most vulnerable.
Use containers made of the safer materials (#2, 4, 5, unlined
aluminum, stainless steel or glass).
Tap water may be an alternative to bottled water, if free of contaminants.
Look into the feasibility of an in-home water filtration system.
Be very cautious of plastic marketed for infants (pacifiers, sippy cups).
Use glass or ceramic containers to heat food.
Do not reuse #1 containers, and be careful not to expose them to
damage from high heat, freezing, being dropped, cleaning, etc.
Use paper towels rather than plastic cling wrap in the microwave.
Sources
Arnold, E. & Larsen, J. (2006). Bottled water: Pouring resources
down the drain. Retrieved January 2, 2008, from Earth Policy
Institute Web site: http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2006/Update51.htm
Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction.
(2006). Draft NTP-CERHR report on the reproductive and developmental
toxicity of Bisphenol A. Retrieved January 22, 2008 from: http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/bisphenol/Bispehnol_A_Draft_Report.pdf
Christie, T. (2007, December 20). Debate escalates over
chemical use in plastic bottles, cans. Register-Guard. Retrieved
December 27, 2007 from: http://www.registerguard.com/csp/cms/sites/dt.cms.support.viewStory.cls?cid=38348&sid=1&fid=1
Commonly asked questions: Plastic. (n.d.). Retrieved December 31,
2007 from Stanford University Recycling Center Web site: http://recycling.stanford.edu/recycling/caq_plastic.html
Environmental Working Group. (2007a). A survey of Bisphenol A
in U.S. canned food. Retrieved January 1, 2008 from http://www.ewg.org/reports/bisphenola
Environmental Working Group. (2007b) BPA levels in canned
infant formula poses higher risk than baby bottles. Retrieved January
1, 2008 from: http://www.ewg.org/node/25642
Fisk, U. (2005). Nalgene therapy, in Ask Umbra. Environmental News
Network. Retrieved December 27, 2007 from: http://www.enn.com/top_stories/article/765
Geehr, E.C. (2007). Are plastic bottles bad for you? You may be
swilling more than water. LifeScript. Retrieved
January 2, 2009 from: http://www.lifescript.com/channels/healthy_living/Health_Conditions/are_plastic_bottles_bad_for_you.asp?page=1
Gibson, R. (2007). Toxic chemical leaches from popular baby bottles.
Retrieved January 2, 2008 from Environment California Web site: http://environmentcalifornia.org/newsroom/environmental-health/environmental-health-news/toxic-chemical-leaches-from-popular-baby-bottles
Kawai, K., Takehiro, N., Nishikata, H., Aou, S., Kubo, C. (2003).
Aggressive behavior and serum testosterone concentration during the
maturation process of male mice: The effects of fetal exposure to
Bisphenol A. Environmental Health Perspectives. 11:175-8.
Larsen, J. (2007). Bottled water boycotts: Back-to-the-tap movement
gains momentum. Retrieved January 2, 2008 from Earth Policy
Institute. Web site: http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2007/Update68.htm
Roosevelt, M. (2006). What’s toxic in toyland? Time, 168 (24) 78-79.
Sugiura-Ogasawara, M., Ozaki, Y., Shin-ichi, S., Makino, T;,
Suzumori, K. (2005). Exposure to Bisphenol A is associated with
recurrent miscarriage. Human Reproduction 20(8) 2325-29.
Swartzberg, J. (2007). Bottled water bites the dust. University of
California at Berkeley Wellness Letter, 23(12): 3, 2007.
Takeuchi, T., Tsutsumi, O., Idezuki, Y., Taketani, Y. (2004).
Positive relationship between androgen and the endochrine disruptor,
Bisphenol A, in normal women and women with ovarian dysfunction.
Endocrine Journal, 51(2), 165-9.
Think outside the bottle. (n.d.). Retrieved January 2, 2008 from: http://www.stopcorporateabuse.org/tob/page1580.cfm
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Technology Transfer
Network. (2000). Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP).
Retrieved December 23, 2007 from: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/eth-phth.html
Water, water, everywhere -- bottled water market in the US –
industry overview – statistical data included.
(2001). American Demographics. Retrieved December 23,
2007 from: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m4021/is_2001_Oct_1/ai_79052846
When recycling is dangerous. (2007, November 21). Illinois Times.
Retrieved December 21, 2007 from: http://www.illinoistimes.com/gryobase/PrintFriendly?oid=oid%3A7058
Whittelsey, F.C. (2003, November-December). Hazards of hydration:
Choose your plastic water bottles carefully. Sierra
Magazine. Retrieved January 2, 2008 from Sierra Magazine. Web
site: http://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/200311/lol5_printable.asp
For further information, contact Dr. Livingston at llivi1@uis.edu.
The NADD Environmental Health Project, funded by the John Merck Fund,
provides professionals, families, and the general public with
relevant information concerning toxic agents and their affects on
neuro-development. For further information visit
www.thenadd.org and click on “Environmental Health Project,”
or contact Ed Seliger, Project Coordinator, at eseliger@thenadd.org.
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